• Built-in
• Bytes
• Class
• Debug
• Decorator
• Dictionary
• Exception
• Execution
• Flow control
• Function
• Generator
• Iterator
• Keyword
• Library
• List
• Number
• Operator
• Regex
• Resource
• Scope
• Sequence
• Set
• String
• Test
• Time
• Tuple
• Types

• and
• as
• assert
• async
• await
• break
• case¹
• class
• continue
• def
• del
• elif
• else
• except
• False
• finally
• for
• from
• global
• if
• import
• in
• is
• lambda
• match¹
• None
• nonlocal
• not
• or
• pass
• raise
• return
• True
• try
• type¹
• while
• with
• yield
• _¹

abs(number)

Absolute value of number

aiter(async_iterable)

Asynchronous iterator for an asynchronous iterable

all(iterable)

True if all elements of iterable are true (all([]) is True)

any(iterable)

True if any element of iterable is true (any([]) is False)

ascii(object)

A string with a printable representation of an object

bin(number)

Convert integer number to binary string

bool(object)

Boolean value

breakpoint(*args, **kwds)

Drop into debugger via sys.breakpointhook(*args, **kwds)

bytearray(…)

New array of bytes from byte-integers, string, bytes, object with buffer API

bytes(…)

New bytes object from byte-integers, string, bytes

callable(object)

True if object is callable

chr(i)

One character string for unicode ordinal i (0 <= i <= 0x10ffff)

classmethod(func)

Transform function into class method

compile(source, …)

Compile source into code or AST object

complex(real=0, imag=0)

Complex number with the value real + imag*1j

delattr(object, name)

Delete the named attribute, if object allows

dict(…)

Create new dictionary

dir([object])

List of names in the local scope, or object.__dir__() or attributes

divmod(x, y)

Return (quotient x//y, remainder x%y)

enumerate(iterable, start=0)

Enumerate object as (n, item) pairs with n initialised to start value

eval(source, globals=None, locals=None)

Execute Python expression, string or code object from compile()

exec(source, globals=None, locals=None)

Execute Python statements, string or code object from compile()

filter(func, iterable)

Iterator yielding items where func(item) is true, or bool(item) if func is None

float(x=0)

Floating point number from number or string

format(object, format_spec='')

Formatted representation

frozenset(…)

New frozenset object

getattr(object, name[, default])

Get value of named attribute of object, else default or raise exception

globals()

Dictionary of current module namespace

hasattr(object, name)

True if object has named attribute

hash(object)

Hash value of object (see object.__hash__())

help(…)

Built-in help system

hex(number)

Convert integer to lowercase hexadecimal string

id(object)

Return unique integer identifier of object

__import__(name, …)

Invoked by the import statement

input(prompt='')

Read string from stdin, with optional prompt

int(…)

Create integer from number or string

isinstance(object, cls_or_tuple)

True if object is instance of given class(es)

issubclass(cls, cls_or_tuple)

True if class is subclass of given class(es)

iter(object, …)

Iterator for object

len(object)

Length of object

list(…)

Create list

locals()

Dictionary of current local symbol table

map(func, *iterables)

Apply function to every item of iterable(s)

max(…, key=func)

Largest item of iterable or arguments, optional key function extracts value

memoryview(object)

Access internal object data via buffer protocol

min(…, key=func)

Smallest item of iterable or arguments, optional key function extracts value

next(iterator[, default])

Next item from iterator, optionally return default instead of StopIteration

object()

New featureless object

oct(number)

Convert integer to octal string

open(file, …)

Open file object

ord(chr)

Integer representing Unicode code point of character

pow(base, exp, mod=None)

Return base to the power of exp

print(value, …)

Print object to text stream file

property(…)

Property decorator

range(…)

Generate integer sequence

repr(object)

String representation of object for debugging

reversed(sequence)

Reverse iterator

round(number, ndigits=None)

Number rounded to ndigits precision after decimal point

set(…)

New set object

setattr(object, name, value)

Set object attribute value by name

slice(…)

Slice object representing a set of indices

sorted(iterable, key=None, reverse=False)

New sorted list from the items in iterable

staticmethod(func)

Transform function into static method

str(…)

String description of object

sum(iterable, start=0)

Sums items of iterable, optionally adding start value

super(…)

Proxy object that delegates method calls to parent or sibling

tuple(iterable)

Create a tuple

type(…)

Type of an object, or build new type

vars([object])

Return object.__dict__ or locals() if no argument

zip(*iterables, strict=False)

Iterate over multiple iterables in parallel, strict requires equal length

for item in <iterable>:
    …
[else:                     # if loop completes without break
    …]

while <condition>:
    …
[else:                     # if loop completes without break
    …]

break                      # immediately exit loop
continue                   # skip to next loop iteration
return[ value]             # exit function, return value | None
yield[ value]              # exit generator, yield value | None
assert <expr>[, message]   # if not <expr> raise AssertionError([message])

if <condition>:
    …
[elif <condition>:
    …]*
[else:
    …]

<expression1> if <condition> else <expression2>

with <expression>[ as name]: # context manager
  …

A with statement takes an object with special methods:

• __enter__() - locks resources and optionally returns an object
• __exit__() - releases resources, handles any exception raised in the block, optionally suppressing it by returning True

class AutoClose:
    def __init__(self, filename):
        self.filename = filename
    def __enter__(self):
        self.f = open(self.filename)
        return self.f
    def __exit__(self, exc_type, exception, traceback):
        self.f.close()

>>> with open('test.txt', 'w') as f:
...        f.write('Hello World!')
>>> with AutoClose('test.txt') as f:
...        print(f.read())
Hello World!

match <expression>:
    case <pattern>[ if <condition>]:  # conditional match, if "guard" clause
         …
    case <pattern1> | <pattern2>:     # OR pattern
         …
    case _:                           # default case
         …

Match case pattern

1/'abc'/True/None/math.pi

Value pattern, match literal or dotted name

<name>

Capture pattern, match any object and bind to name

_

Wildcard pattern, match any object

<type>()

Class pattern, match any object of that type

<type>(<attr>=<pattern|name>, …)

Class pattern, match object with matching attributes

<pattern> | <pattern> [| …]

Or pattern, match any of the patterns left to right

[<pattern>[, …[, *args]]

Sequence pattern (list|tuple), match any sequence with matching items (but not string or iterator), may be nested

{<value_pattern>: <pattern>[, …[, **kwds]]}

Mapping pattern, match dictionary with matching items, may be nested

<pattern> as <name>

Bind match to name

<builtin>(<name>)

Builtin pattern, shortcut for <builtin>() as <name> (e.g. str, int)

• Class patterns
  • Do not create a new instance of the class
  • Accept positional parameters if class defines __match_args__ special attribute (e.g. dataclass)
• Sequence patterns support assignment unpacking
• Names bound in a match statement are visible after the match statement

Scope levels:

Builtin

Names pre-assigned in builtins module

Module (global)

Names defined in current module Code in global scope cannot access local variables

Enclosing (closure)

Names defined in any enclosing functions

Function (local)

Names defined in current function By default, has read-only access to module and enclosing function names By default, assignment creates a new local name global <name> grants read/write access to specified module name nonlocal <name> grants read/write access to specified name in closest enclosing function defining that name

Generator expression

Names contained within generator expression

Comprehension

Names contained within comprehension

Class

Names shared across all instances

Instance

Names contained within a specific instance

Method

Names contained within a specific instance method

• globals() - return dict of module scope variables
• locals() - return dict of local scope variables

>>> global_name = 1
>>> def read_global():
...     print(global_name)
...     local_name = "only available in this function"
>>> read_global()
1
>>> def write_global():
...     global global_name
...     global_name = 2
>>> write_global()
>>> print(global_name)
2
>>> def write_nonlocal():
...     closure_name = 1
...     def nested():
...         nonlocal closure_name
...         closure_name = 2
...     nested()
...     print(closure_name)
>>> write_nonlocal()
2

class C:
    class_name = 1
    def __init__(self):
        self.instance_name = 2
    def method(self):
        self.instance_name = 3
        C.class_name = 3
        method_name = 1

Operations on sequence types (Bytes, List, Tuple, String).

x in s

True if any s[i] == x

x not in s

True if no s[i] == x

s1 + s2

Concatenate s1 and s2

s * n, n * s

Concatenate n copies of s

s.count(x)

Count of s[i] == x

len(s)

Count of items

min(s)

Smallest item

max(s)

Largest item

s.index(x[, start[, stop]])

Smallest i where s[i] == x, start/stop bounds search

reversed(s)

Iterator on s in reverse order (for string: reversed(list(s)))

sorted(s, cmp=func, key=getter, reverse=False)

New sorted list

Select items from sequence by index or slice.

>>> s = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
>>> s[0]               # 0-based indexing
0
>>> s[-1]              # negative indexing from end
4
>>> s[slice(2)]        # slice(stop) - index from 0 until stop (exclusive)
[0, 1]
>>> s[slice(1, 5, 3)]  # slice(start, stop[, step]) - index from start to stop (exclusive), with optional step size (+|-)
[1, 4]
>>> s[:2]              # slices are created implicitly when indexing with ':' [start:stop:step]
[0, 1]
>>> s[3::-1]           # negative step
[3, 2, 1, 0]
>>> s[1:3]
[1, 2]
>>> s[1:5:2]
[1, 3]

from functools import total_ordering

@total_ordering
class C:
    def __init__(self, a):
        self.a = a
    def __eq__(self, other):
        if isinstance(other, type(self)):
            return self.a == other.a
        return NotImplemented
    def __lt__(self, other):
        if isinstance(other, type(self)):
            return self.a < other.a
        return NotImplemented

Mutable non-hashable sequence.

s = [1, 'a', 3.0] s = list(range(3))

Create list

s[i] = x

Replace item index i with x

s[<slice>] = it

Replace slice with iterable

del s[<slice>] s[<slice>] = []

Remove slice

s.append(x) s += x s[len(s):len(s)] = [x]

Add item to end

s.extend(it) s[len(s):len(s)] = it

Add items from iterable to end

s.insert(i, x) s[i:i] = [x]

Insert item at index i

s.remove(x) del s[s.index(x)]

Remove first item where s[i] == x

y = s.pop([i])

Remove and return last item or indexed item

s.reverse()

Reverse items in place

s.sort(cmp=func, key=getter, reverse=False)

Sort items in place, default ascending

result = [<expression> for item1 in <iterable1>{ if <condition1>}
            {for item2 in <iterable2>{ if <condition2>} … for itemN in <iterableN>{ if <conditionN>}}]

# is equivalent to:

result = []
for item1 in <iterable1>:
    for item2 in <iterable2>:
        …
        for itemN in <iterableN>:
            if <condition1> and <condition2> … and <conditionN>:
                result.append(<expression>)

Mutable non-hashable key:value pair mapping.

dict() {}

Empty dict

dict(<sequence|mapping>) {'d':4, 'a':2}

Create from key:value pairs

dict(**kwds)

Create from keyword arguments

dict(zip(keys, values))

Create from sequences of keys and values

dict.fromkeys(keys, value=None)

Create from keys, all set to value

d.keys()

Iterable of keys

d.values()

Iterable of values

d.items()

Iterable of (key, value) pairs

d.get(key, default=None)

Get value for key, or default

d.setdefault(key, default=None)

Get value for key, add if missing

d.pop(key)

Remove and return value for key, raise KeyError if missing

d.popitem()

Remove and return (key, value) pair (last-in, first-out)

d.clear()

Remove all items

d.copy()

Shallow copy

d1.update(d2) d1 |= d23.9+

Add/replace key:value pairs from d2 to d1

d3 = d1 | d23.9+ d3 = {**d1, **d2}

Merge to new dict, d2 trumps d1

# defaultdict(<callable>) sets default value returned by callable()
import collections
collections.defaultdict(lambda: 42) # dict with default value 42

# {k: v for k, v in <iterable>[ if <condition>]}

>>> {x: x**2 for x in (2, 4, 6) if x < 5}
{2: 4, 4: 16}

Mutable (set) and immutable (frozenset) sets.

set()

Empty set

{1, 2, 3}

Create (note: {} creates empty dict - sad!)

set(iterable) {*iterable}

Create from iterable

frozenset(iterable=None)

Create frozen set

len(s)

Cardinality

v in s v not in s

Test membership

s1.issubset(s2)

True if s1 is subset of s2

s1.issuperset(s2)

True if s1 is superset of s2

s.add(v) [mutable]

Add element

s.remove(v) [mutable]

Remove element (KeyError if not found)

s.discard(v) [mutable]

Remove element if present

s.pop() [mutable]

Remove and return arbitrary element (KeyError if empty)

s.clear() [mutable]

Remove all elements

s1.intersection(s2[, s3…]) s1 & s2

New set of shared elements

s1.intersection_update(s2) [mutable]

Update elements to intersection with s2

s1.union(s2[, s3…]) s1 | s2

New set of all elements

s1.difference(s2[, s3…]) s1 - s2

New set of elements unique to s1

s1.difference_update(s2) [mutable]

Remove elements intersecting with s2

s1.symmetric_difference(s2) s1 ^ s2

New set of unshared elements

s1.symmetric_difference_update(s2) [mutable]

Update elements to symmetric difference with s2

s.copy()

Shallow copy

s.update(it1[, it2…]) [mutable]

Add elements from iterables

# {x for x in <iterable>[ if <condition>]}

>>> {x for x in 'abracadabra' if x not in 'abc'}
{'r', 'd'}

Immutable sequence of bytes. Mutable version is bytearray.

b'<str>'

Create from ASCII characters and \x00-\xff

bytes(<ints>)

Create from int sequence

bytes(<str>, 'utf-8') <str>.encode('utf-8')

Create from string

<int>.to_bytes(length, order, signed=False)

Create from int (order='big'|'little')

bytes.fromhex('<hex>')

Create from hex pairs (can be separated by whitespace)

<int> = <bytes>[<index>]

Return int in range 0 to 255

<bytes> = <bytes>[<slice>]

Return bytes even if only one element

list(<bytes>)

Return ints in range 0 to 255

<bytes_sep>.join(<byte_objs>)

Join byte_objs sequence with bytes_sep separator

str(<bytes>, 'utf-8') <bytes>.decode('utf-8')

Convert bytes to string

int.from_bytes(bytes, order, signed=False)

Return int from bytes (order='big'|'little')

<bytes>.hex(sep='', bytes_per_sep=2)

Return hex pairs

def read_bytes(filename):
    with open(filename, 'rb') as f:
        return f.read()

def write_bytes(filename, bytes_obj):
    with open(filename, 'wb') as f:
        f.write(bytes_obj)

# var-positional
def f(*args): …            # f(1, 2)
def f(x, *args): …         # f(1, 2)
def f(*args, z): …         # f(1, z=2)

# var-keyword
def f(**kwds): …           # f(x=1, y=2)
def f(x, **kwds): …        # f(x=1, y=2) | f(1, y=2)

def f(*args, **kwds): …    # f(x=1, y=2) | f(1, y=2) | f(1, 2)
def f(x, *args, **kwds): … # f(x=1, y=2, z=3) | f(1, y=2, z=3) | f(1, 2, z=3) | f(1, 2, 3)
def f(*args, y, **kwds): … # f(x=1, y=2, z=3) | f(1, y=2, z=3)

# positional-only before /
def f(x, /, y): …          # f(1, 2) | f(1, y=2)
def f(x, y, /): …          # f(1, 2)

# keyword-only after *
def f(x, *, y): …          # f(x=1, y=2) | f(1, y=2)
def f(*, x, y): …          # f(x=1, y=2)

args = (1, 2)              # *  expands sequence to positional arguments
kwds = {'x': 3, 'y': 4}    # ** expands dictionary to keyword arguments
func(*args, **kwds)        # is the same as:
func(1, 2, x=3, y=4)

class C:
    """Class docstring."""
    def __init__(self, a):
        """Method docstring."""
        self.a = a
    def __repr__(self):
        """Used for repr(c), also for str(c) if __str__ not defined."""
        return f'{self.__class__.__name__}({self.a!r})'
    def __str__(self):
        """Used by str(c), e.g. print(c)"""
        return str(self.a)
    @classmethod
    def get_class_name(cls): # passed class rather than instance
        return cls.__name__
    @staticmethod
    def static(): # passed nothing
        return 1

>>> c = C(2) # instantiate

# under the covers, class instantiation does this:
obj = cls.__new__(cls, *args, **kwds)
if isinstance(obj, cls):
    obj.__init__(*args, **kwds)

class C:
    @property
    def f(self):
        if not hasattr(self, '_f'):
            return
        return self._f
    @f.setter
    def f(self, value):
        self._f = value

Decorator syntax passes a function or class to a callable and replaces it with the return value.

def show_call(obj):
    """
    Decorator that prints obj name and arguments each time obj is called.
    """
    def show_call_wrapper(*args, **kwds):
        print(obj.__name__, args, kwds)
        return obj(*args, **kwds)
    return show_call_wrapper

@show_call # function decorator
def add(x, y):
    return x + y

# is equivalent to
add = show_call(add)

>>> add(13, 29)
add (13, 29) {}
42

@show_call # class decorator
class C:
    def __init__(self, a=None):
        pass

# is equivalent to
C = show_call(C)

>>> C(a=42)
C () {'a': 42}

# decorators optionally take arguments
def show_call_if(condition):
    """
    Apply show_call decorator only if condition is True.
    """
    return show_call if condition else lambda obj: obj

@show_call_if(False)
def add(x, y):
    return x + y

# is equivalent to
add = show_call_if(False)(add)

>>> add(13, 29)
42

@show_call_if(True)
def add(x, y):
    return x + y

>>> add(13, 29)
add (13, 29) {}
42

>>> add.__name__
'show_call_wrapper' # ugh! decorated function has different metadata

# @wraps decorator copies metadata of decorated object to wrapped object
# preserving original attributes (e.g. __name__)
from functools import wraps

def show_call_preserve_meta(obj):
    @wraps(obj)
    def show_call_wrapper(*args, **kwds):
        print(obj.__name__, args, kwds)
        return obj(*args, **kwds)
    return show_call_wrapper

@show_call_preserve_meta
def add(x, y):
    return x + y

>>> add.__name__
'add'

An iterator implements the __iter__() method, returning an iterable that implements the __next__() method. The __next__() method returns the next item in the collection and raises StopIteration when done.

class C:
    def __init__(self, items):
        self.items = items

    def __iter__(self):
        """Make class its own iterable."""
        return self

    def __next__(self):
        """Implement to be iterable."""
        if self.items:
            return self.items.pop()
        raise StopIteration

>>> c = C([13, 29])
>>> it = iter(c)    # get iterator
>>> next(it)        # get next item
29
>>> for item in c:  # iterate over C instance
...     print(item)
13

A function with a yield statement returns a generator iterator and suspends function processing. Each iteration over the generator iterator resumes function execution, returns the next yield value, and suspends again.

def gen():
    """Generator function"""
    for i in [13, 29]:
        yield i

>>> g = gen()
>>> next(g)            # next value
13
>>> for item in gen(): # iterate over values
...     print(item)
13
29
>>> list(gen())        # list all values
[13, 29]

def parent_gen():
    yield from gen()   # delegate yield to another generator

>>> list(parent_gen())
[13, 29]

# (<expression> for <name> in <iterable>[ if <condition>])
>>> g = (item for item in [13, 29] if item > 20)
>>> list(g)
[29]

Immutable sequence of characters.

<substring> in s

True if string contains substring

s.startswith(<prefix>[, start[, end]])

True if string starts with prefix, optionally search bounded substring

s.endswith(<suffix>[, start[, end]])

True if string ends with suffix, optionally search bounded substring

s.strip(chars=None)

Strip whitespace from both ends, or passed characters

s.lstrip(chars=None)

Strip whitespace from left end, or passed characters

s.rstrip(chars=None)

Strip whitespace from right end, or passed characters

s.ljust(width, fillchar=' ')

Left justify with fillchar

s.rjust(width, fillchar=' ')

Right justify with fillchar

s.center(width, fillchar=' ')

Center with fillchar

s.split(sep=None, maxsplit=-1)

Split on whitespace, or sep str at most maxsplit times

s.splitlines(keepends=False)

Split lines on [\n\r\f\v\x1c-\x1e\x85\u2028\u2029] and \r\n

<separator>.join(<strings>)

Join sequence of strings with separator string

s.find(<substring>)

Index of first match or -1

s.index(<substring>)

Index of first match or raise ValueError

s.lower()

To lower case

s.upper()

To upper case

s.title()

To title case (The Quick Brown Fox)

s.capitalize()

Capitalize first letter

s.replace(old, new[, count])

Replace old with new at most count times

s.translate(<table>)

Use str.maketrans(<dict>) to generate table

chr(<int>)

Integer to Unicode character

ord(<str>)

Unicode character to integer

s.isdecimal()

True if [0-9], [०-९] or [٠-٩]

s.isdigit()

True if isdecimal() or [²³¹…]

s.isnumeric()

True if isdigit() or [¼½¾零〇一…]

s.isalnum()

True if isnumeric() or [a-zA-Z…]

s.isprintable()

True if isalnum() or [ !#$%…]

s.isspace()

True if [ \t\n\r\f\v\x1c-\x1f\x85\xa0…]

head, sep, tail = s.partition(<separator>)

Search for separator from start and split

head, sep, tail = s.rpartition(<separator>)

Search for separator from end and split

s.removeprefix(<prefix>)3.9+

Remove prefix if present

s.removesuffix(<suffix>)3.9+

Remove suffix if present

Standard library re module provides Python regular expressions.

>>> import re
>>> my_re = re.compile(r'name is (?P<name>[A-Za-z]+)')
>>> match = my_re.search('My name is Douglas.')
>>> match.group()
'name is Douglas'
>>> match.group(1)
'Douglas'
>>> match.groupdict()['name']
'Douglas'

.

Any character (newline if DOTALL)

^

Start of string (every line if MULTILINE)

$

End of string (every line if MULTILINE)

*

0 or more of preceding

+

1 or more of preceding

?

0 or 1 of preceding

*?, +?, ??

Same as *, + and ?, as few as possible

{m,n}

m to n repetitions

{m,n}?

m to n repetitions, as few as possible

[…]

Character set: e.g. '[a-zA-Z]'

[^…]

NOT character set

\

Escape chars '*?+&$|()', introduce special sequences

\\

Literal '\'

|

Or

(…)

Group

(?:…)

Non-capturing group

(?P<name>…)

Named group

(?P=name)

Match text matched by earlier group

(?=…)

Match next, non-consumptive

(?!…)

Non-match next, non-consumptive

(?<=…)

Match preceding, positive lookbehind assertion

(?<!…)

Non-match preceding, negative lookbehind assertion

(?(group)A|B)

Conditional match - A if group previously matched else B

(?letters)

Set flags for RE ('i','L', 'm', 's', 'u', 'x')

(?#…)

Comment (ignored)

\<n>

Match by integer group reference starting from 1

\A

Start of string

\b

Word boundary (see flag: ASCII|LOCALE)

\B

Not word boundary (see flag: ASCII|LOCALE)

\d

Decimal digit (see flag: ASCII)

\D

Non-decimal digit (see flag: ASCII)

\s

Whitespace [ \t\n\r\f\v] (see flag: ASCII)

\S

Non-whitespace (see flag: ASCII)

\w

Alphanumeric (see flag: ASCII|LOCALE)

\W

Non-alphanumeric (see flag: ASCII|LOCALE)

\Z

End of string

Flags modify regex behaviour. Pass to regex functions (e.g. re.A | re.ASCII) or embed in regular expression (e.g. (?a)).

(?a) | A | ASCII

ASCII-only match for \w, \W, \b, \B, \d, \D, \s, \S (default is Unicode)

(?i) | I | IGNORECASE

Case insensitive matching

(?L) | L | LOCALE

Apply current locale for \w, \W, \b, \B (discouraged)

(?m) | M | MULTILINE

Match every new line, not only start/end of string

(?s) | S | DOTALL

'.' matches ALL chars, including newline

(?x) | X | VERBOSE

Ignores whitespace outside character sets

DEBUG

Display expression debug info

compile(pattern[, flags=0])

Compiles Regular Expression Object

escape(string)

Escape non-alphanumerics

match(pattern, string[, flags])

Match from start

search(pattern, string[, flags])

Match anywhere

split(pattern, string[, maxsplit=0])

Splits by pattern, keeping splitter if grouped

findall(pattern, string)

Non-overlapping matches as list of groups or tuples (>1)

finditer(pattern, string[, flags])

Iterator over non-overlapping matches

sub(pattern, repl, string[, count=0])

Replace count first leftmost non-overlapping; If repl is function, called with a MatchObj

subn(pattern, repl, string[, count=0])

Like sub(), but returns (newString, numberOfSubsMade)

flags

Flags

groupindex

{group name: group number}

pattern

Pattern

match(string[, pos][, endpos])

Match from start of target[pos:endpos]

search(string[, pos][, endpos])

Match anywhere in target[pos:endpos]

split(string[, maxsplit=0])

See split() function

findall(string[, pos[, endpos]])

See findall() function

finditer(string[, pos[, endpos]])

See finditer() function

sub(repl, string[, count=0])

See sub() function

subn(repl, string[, count=0])

See subn() function

pos

pos passed to search or match

endpos

endpos passed to search or match

re

RE object

group([g1, g2, ...])

One or more groups of match One arg, result is a string Multiple args, result is tuple If gi is 0, returns the entire matching string If 1 <= gi <= 99, returns string matching group (None if no such group) May also be a group name Tuple of match groups Non-participating groups are None String if len(tuple)==1

start(group), end(group)

Indices of start & end of group match (None if group exists but didn't contribute)

span(group)

(start(group), end(group)); (None, None) if group didn't contibute

string

String passed to match() or search()

bool([object]) True, False

Boolean

int([float|str|bool]) 5

Integer

float([int|str|bool]) 5.1, 1.2e-4

Float (inexact, compare with math.isclose(<float>, <float>)

complex(real=0, imag=0) 3 - 2j, 2.1 + 0.8j

Complex

fractions.Fraction(<numerator>, <denominator>)

Fraction

decimal.Decimal([str|int])

Decimal (exact, set precision: decimal.getcontext().prec = <int>)

bin([int]) 0b101010 int('101010', 2) int('0b101010', 0)

Binary

hex([int]) 0x2a int('2a', 16) int('0x2a', 0)

Hex

Also see built-in functions abs, pow, round, sum, min, max.

from math import (e, pi, inf, nan, isinf, isnan,
                  sin, cos, tan, asin, acos, atan, degrees, radians,
                  log, log10, log2)

from statistics import mean, median, variance, stdev, quantiles, groupby

>>> from random import random, randint, choice, shuffle, gauss, triangular, seed
>>> random() # float inside [0, 1)
0.42
>>> randint(1, 100) # int inside [<from>, <to>]
42
>>> choice(range(100)) # random item from sequence
42

The datetime module provides immutable hashable date, time, datetime, and timedelta classes.

$ python [-bBdEhiIOqsSuvVWx?] [-c command | -m module-name | script | - ] [args]
$ python --version
Python 3.10.12
$ python --help[-all] # help-all [3.11+]
# Execute code from command line
$ python -c 'print("Hello, world!")'
# Execute __main__.py in directory
$ python <directory>
# Execute module as __main__
$ python -m timeit -s 'setup here' 'benchmarked code here'
# Optimise execution
$ python -O script.py

# Hide warnings
PYTHONWARNINGS="ignore"
# OR
$ python -W ignore foo.py
# OR
import warnings
warnings.filterwarnings("ignore", category=DeprecationWarning)

# module of executed script is assigned __name__ '__main__'
# so to run main() only if module is executed as script
if __name__ == '__main__':
    main()

PYTHONHOME

Change location of standard Python libraries

PYTHONPATH

Augment default search path for module files

PYTHONSTARTUP

Module to execute before entering interactive prompt

PYTHONOPTIMIZE

Optimise execution (-O)

PYTHONWARNINGS

Set warning level [default/error/always/module/once/ignore] (-W)

PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME

Show module import times (-X)

Before __main__ module is executed Python automatically imports:

• sitecustomize.py in the system site-packages directory
• usercustomize.py in the user site-packages directory

# Get user site packages directory
$ python -m site --user-site

# Bypass sitecustomize.py/usercustomize.py hooks
$ python -S script.py